Causal Judgement and Blocking Experiment

Causal Judgement and Blocking Experiment Michael Arruzza Abstract Recent results of studies which aim to gain a greater understanding of how blocking works and the mechanisms involved have led to some conflicting results. Some research suggest that blocking may be the result of assumptions about the additive nature of outcomes. Others think that it may have more to do with associative learning. This experiment investigates blocking in causal learning with human participants with the aim to addresses two main questions. Is blocking affected by encouraging or discouraging assumptions about the additive nature of the outcome? How do the results differ if we separately measure the memory for specific cue-outcome pairings? Results of the study show that there is evidence for both ideas and they may both contribute to the phenomenon of blocking. Introduction A model of the blocking effect was first developed by Kamin in his work with conditioning animals (Kamin, 1969). Kamin identified that training with one cue considerably reduced performance to another cue that was added to the first cue, in a second phase of training. A typical example of blocking would go something like this. Cue A is paired with an effect (A+). In a second phase a compound of two cues, the former cue A and new cue B is paired with the effect (AB+). Decisions on the strength of cue B are effected or â€Å"blocked† by information about the causal relationship of cue A. This has been described as the blocking effect. He theorised that learning may be driven by surprise, if a cue did not provide new information about the contingency between events and the environment it was ignored. Others researchers more recently such as Lovibond (Lovibond P, 2003) have tried to explain blocking in terms of inferential reasoning based upon a relatively simple set of propositions where the observer can deduce though logic that the blocked cue is not a cause of the outcome. Using an allergic reaction to foods as an example this would occur if someone assumed that the patients allergies are additive. When two foods are eaten which cause an allergic reaction they should cause a greater reaction then if only one of the two foods caused a reaction. If one does not observe an increase in the severity of the outcome when B is eaten at the same time as the allergenic food A, then one can deduce that B does not contribute to the allergic reaction. For example if eating a banana causes an allergic reaction rated as 5 and eating a banana and an apple causes a reaction of 5, then the apple has not made the reaction worse and is not the cause of the reaction itself. Lovibond (Lovibond P, 2003) and his colleges also observed that pre-training with explicit instructions that encourage outcome additivity assumption enhance the blocking effect. It is possible that the blocking effect is product of deductive reasoning and it sometimes unreliable response might be due to some participants assuming outcome aditivity while others do not. However a statistically robust blocking effect has still been observed even after explicit non-additive pre-training (Mitchell Chris, 2006). But his blocking effect is significantly smaller than after additive pre-training. In this study done by Mitchell et all multiple blocked use and control cues were implemented. The study only used a non-additive pre-training group and did not include an additive group. This would have been beneficial as it would have been great to contrast the two groups. After non additive pre-training participants were worse off at recalling the outcome associated with the blocked cue. Mitchell goes on to suggest from the data that the blocking effect that has previously been observed after non-additive pre-training may be the result of a non-rational process such as a failure to retrieve the outcome associated with the blocked cue. The ‘blocking affect’ may results from a failure to encode the B–outcome relationship during training. This concept tried to explain blocking as an associative learning theory. This research aims to better understand the blocking phenomenon. In particular to reconcile the two somewhat contradicting explanations outlined above that either blocking is the result of deductive reasoning or it is a part of a failure to encode cue-outcome associations. Is it the product of one of these two ways of thinking about blocking, can they co-exist or are they mutually exclusive? Based on previous research: It is hypothesised that both additive and non-additive groups would show reliable blocking in memory for both groups It is also hypothesised that there will be a weaker causal attribution for blocked cues with additive pre-training Method Participants This trial was done by 120 undergraduate university student who were separated into two groups numbering 60 students in each. Of the sample 78 were female and 42 were male. The mean age of students who participated in the study was 21.7 years of age. Procedure All 120 participants sat a computer trial to determine which foods were causing a hypothetical ‘Mr X’s’ allergic reactions. This initially began with a training phase. On a number of trial participant had to predict whether an allergic reaction would occur by click on of two or three options on the screen. Next participants were then told whether an allergic reaction had occurred and how severe the reaction was on a scale ranging from 0 to 10. This was Stage 1 was done by participants 8 times. In stage 2 compounds were also presented 8 times each. Participants could choose from no reaction, or one of two alternative reactions. In stage 2 a reaction occurred could have a severity of either 5 or 10. Next the 20 cues were presented individually and participants were to make two ratings for each cue. First to pair the cue with the allergic reaction that had occurred. The cues A-H were blocked cues, S-Z overshadowed control cues, and K-N no outcome cues. Next they rated their confidence on a scale of 0-100, 0 being not confident at all and 100 very confident. On the same scale they then rated the extent to which that same cue actually caused the reaction on another rating scale. Assumptions on additive logical reasoning were manipulated on two two levels: One group (Additive pre-training) were given training trials before blocking training, which showed the effects of combining to other allergenic food cues. They also received 3 explicit instructions stating that the addition of two causal cues resulted in a more severe outcome. The other Non-additive pre-training group received the same pre-training except that two options that cause and reaction gave the same medium allergic reaction of 5 as each of these options individually. This group also received explicit instructions stating that the addition of two causal cues resulted in an outcome of the same severity. The purpose of this design is to evaluate if scores show a lower causal rating for the blocked cues than the overshadowing cues. Also whether participants were less accurate in recalling the outcome for the blocked cues than for the overshadowed cues. It’s also to understand the effect of pre-training on blocked and control cues. Results The results of the study indicate that some areas of the study produced statistically significant results while when comparing other groups no statically significant data was found. When comparisons across groups were assessed it would appear that cue type had a significant effect on blocking (F (1,118) = 99.596 p Figure 1: mean memory accuracy across groups which show no significant difference of blocking between different groups. Figure 2: mean causal reasoning which show a significant difference between groups in terms of blocking. Discussion Prior to the conduction of these experiments due to the results of previous studies it is hypothesised that both additive and non-additive groups would show reliable blocking in memory for both groups. It is also hypothesised that there will be a weaker causal attribution for blocked cues with additive pre-training. Just like in the research done by lovibond (Lovibond P, 2003) pre-training influenced causal reasoning as blocked cues in the experiment were judged as less causal in the additive group. A significant difference in the strength of the blocking effect between groups. This adds evidence to the idea that deductive reasoning about the additive nature of causal events may contribute to the blocking effect as previously thought by other researchers. However the data does still show that even though significant difference in the strength of the blocking effect between groups Blocking still evident after non-additive pre-training, product of associative learning. Another significant result of the experiment was the data showed a strong blocking effect on memory for correct outcome. The outcomes associated with blocked cues were recalled less well than the outcomes associated with the control cues. Pervious idea about the blocking effect (Mitchell Chris, 2006) had proposed that the effect may be due to a failure to encode the B-outcome during training. The fact that data showed a blocking effect for the correct outcome shows that this may be the case. It also helps to explain why it a blocking effect has still been found even though non-additive pre-training had been part of the experiment. Previous research has shown that there are two separate ways of thinking about the blocking, the process as a result of outcome aditivty or a failure to encode the B-outcome. Our research has shown that blocking might be the result of several quite different mental processes. The fact that blocking was still evident after non-additive pre-training suggests that it may be the product of associative learning. Even when measures are taken to discount outcome aditivity a blocking effect it was still present. This means that it is likely that they both contribute to the blocking effect. This experiment needs to be replicate by other studies to ensure this conclusion is valid. It should be extended to different groups of people not just the limited selection of university students in a more scientific setting then a classroom test. It may be that a group of university student with a mean age of 21.7 may not be the best representative same of the population. It may be the lack of scientific setting effected the degree of seriousness when participant undertook the test. It might also be interesting to evaluate something other than blocking to hypothetical allergic reactions as this may in tale different assumptions about food that may have not been controlled for in this study. However students were randomly allocated to different classes for university at the start of semester so that does help with the reliability of the results. Student were also unaware what condition they were in and what was being tested by the experiment which would help prevent a selection bias . Further studies of blocking would be encouraged to eliminate some of the experimental flaws included in this study. This study does show the room needed for further research into the area of blocking as theories of blocking do not appear to be mutually exclusive but underly an associative process that has not yet been discovered. References Dickinson, Anthony. (1984). Judgement of Act-Outcome Contingency: . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 36A 29-50. Evan, L. (2006). The relationship between blocking and inference in causal learning. School of Psychology, University of Sydney. Kamin, L. (1969). Predictability, surprise, attention, and conditioning. Punishment and aversive behavior. Lovibond, P. (2003). Forward and backward blocking of causal judgment is enhanced by additivity. Memory and cognition, 133-142. Mitchell, Chris. (2006). Forward blocking in human learning sometimes reflects the failure to encode a cue–outcome relationship. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 830-844.

Dickens A Christmas Carol and the Industrial Revolution Essay

Dickens' A Christmas Carol and the Industrial Revolution Besides being the secular story of Christmas time in an urban setting, A Christmas Carol, tells the sacred story of Christmas as well. With A Christmas Carol, Dickens initiated an ongoing creative process in the Anglo-American imagination. As a result of the Industrial Revolution and the growth and development of cities people's lives changed drastically as they moved from the life and traditions of the country into those of the city. As industrialization continued, for many people in the city living and working conditions worsened. As reports of horrible working conditions increased so did the literature of social concern for reform.. Prior to the publication of A Christmas Carol the ideas and concerns of various reform bills sparked increased debate over political and social issues. Whether or not Dickens had A Christmas Carol specifically in mind, it is clear that the Industrial Revolution was an important factor in making his Christmas story a tale for the times. Dickens was concerned about the working and living conditions during the Industrial Revolution, when the book was written. These are reflected in Ebenezer Scrooge. He is the shown as the mean and hateful owner, who could care less if his workers are well because he could always get more people. He knew this because during the Industrial Revolution there were more people than there were jobs, so people had to settle for worse conditions because that was all there was. When two men some into his shop wan... ...ooge indeed changes his ways he can in a sense "spoonge away the writing on the stone" and begin a new life. It is significant that Scrooge promises that "the Spirits of all Three shall strive within me. I will not shut out the lessons that they teach". This statement is indicative of several Christian statements of faith promising to live and follow the teachings of the "Three" God, Jesus Christ, and Holy Spirit. When we first met Scrooge, we are informed, and also observe that he is cold, miserly, and bitter. However, after the visit of the Ghost of Christmas future, Scrooge changes into a generous and cheerful man. It is clear that something must have caused a man who is really nice, turn into a mean and nasty person, in this case it was the Industrial Revolution.

Blythebourne School Essay

Blythebourne School is a public school in Brooklyn, New York, that defies national averages for inner city schools and appeals to parents and students alike. The school is unique in its make-up, in terms of socio-economic factors and racial factors. The school is made up of a largely Asian and Pacific Islander community with more than 75 percent of students identifying with that racial classification. Another 10 percent each are Hispanic or Caucasian. There is less than 1 percent of the schools population that identifies itself as African-American. In addition, almost 90 percent of the children who attend the school receive free or reduced lunches, an indication that they are living at or near the poverty line. Further complicating things for the teachers and staff of Blythebourne is that more than 40 percent of their students have difficulty with the English language, indicating that many are not native English speakers. This school also has less than 3 percent of its population in individualized education plans, the programs formerly known as special education, to assist people with learning difficulties or special needs, including speech or hearing difficulties, etc. Testimonials about the school from students and teachers alike praise the school as a wonderful place to be with teachers that care. In addition, teachers at the school are more well-educated that their compatriots across the state. At the average New York school, 20 percent of the teachers hold only a bachelor’s degree. At Blythebourne, only 13 percent hold just a bachelor’s degree; 87 percent have a master’s degree. Most of the children at Blythebourne are of Chinese descent, first-generation immigrants, who speak English as a second language and yet they routinely meet and exceed state averages in test results. The school has become a charter school emphasizing programs for â€Å"Everyday Math† to make students more able to use math in practical terms. The school embraces the multi-cultural heritage and promotes it with typical grade school activities combined with Chinese language and history. As part of federal funding requirements through the No Child Left Behind Law, every public school has its yearly progress toward state-wide goals measured. The state sets a required percentage of students in all major groups and in all sub-groups that must exceed the base requirements of state achievement tests. If a school meets those requirements in all its groups combined, it is said to be making adequate yearly progress. School report cards indicate show whether the school is making their AYP (adequate yearly progress) in each of its sub-groups as well. In the case of Blythebourne, the sub-groups are based on gender, race, and socio-edonomic status. According to the school’s web page, Blythebourne is making AYP in all its sub-groups, an impressive task since most schools are not able to keep consistent results across the curriculum. The amazing thing about the Blythebourne School is that the results are averaging higher than statewide results even with children who may not have spoken a word of English before beginning school. Three-quarters of these same kids, by the time they reach third grade, are exceeding standards for English proficiency. Statewide, only 67 percent of third graders can exceed the standards. Equally impressive is that through all three grades tested, 95 percent of the students at Blythebourne school exceed the standards for math proficiency. That math proficiency is universal across the sub-groups and consistent, with almost no statistical difference between the three grades. In the spring of 2007, fourth grade students at the Blythebourne school were not as proficient as the class the previous year had been and fell short of the statewide standards, but only by a few percentage points. Perhaps of note is that the test results in English Language Arts fell dramatically in all three grade levels from 2006 to 2007. Proficiency fell from 90 percent to 76 percent in the third grade; 75 to 64 percent in fourth grade and 78 to 63 percent in the fifth grade. Statewide in fourth and fifth grade, proficiency was 68 percent. The reasons for the dramatic drop in results is unclear, but should be further explored. Parents who are contemplating enrolling their children in P. S. 105, otherwise known as Blythebourne, might want to further investigate these anomalies. According to other statistics, the other thing that may concern parents is the potential for overcrowding at the school. Current class loads indicate an average of 15 students per teacher, but because this is a public school and subject to whims of the school board and the ever-fluctuating population. However, there are equally valid reasons to seek out a school like Blythebourne. For example, the school has adapted to the cultural heritage of the majority of its students into its curriculum, allowing Chinese students to learn their new language without abandoning the heritage. Observers also say the school and its teachers work hard to actively involve students in the learning process, letting them actually observe ice melting as a way to understand â€Å"Cold† and often sacrificing administrative space to give as much room as possible to their students. The district has crushed more than 1,600 students into a building that was stressed with 1,200. Additional public schools have been opened nearby, but the constant immigration into the area leads the school to enroll students year-round. Another note in favor of the Blythebourne school is that students there actually attend school. As any teacher can attest, students can’t learn if they aren’t there. With a 95 percent attendance rate, students and parents in the Blythebourne school obviously make education enough of a priority that they get to class. By getting their children to school on a regular basis, parents with the school’s service area are showing their commitment to education. If that commitment follows through in terms of parental involvement in the school and follow through in their child’s education, then schools around the country would do well to learn from the Blythebourne example. Numerous schools cite lack of parental involvement and attendance issues as among the biggest problems they face. Based on the ranking system provided at one website, Blythebourne is in the top 20 percent of schools in New York. In that ranking, where 1 is the lowest and 100 is the best, Blythebourne ranked 81. For a public school with almost half of its students made up of recent immigrants, the ranking is phenomenal and any parent should be happy to have their child attend P. S. 105, Blythebourne School.

Political Campaign Contributions Of The United States Essay

Political Campaign Contributions Recently in the U.S., the most frequent mentioned topic would be 2016 presidential election. People on both sides have donated to political campaigns from the very beginning. And one of the concerns is that can campaign donors write off any of these contributions on their federal income taxes? According to the IRS, the answer is a very clear NO. â€Å"You can’t deduct contributions made to a political candidate, a campaign committee, or a newsletter fund. Advertisements in convention bulletins and admissions to dinners or programs that benefit a political party or political candidate aren’t deductible,† informed in IRS Publication 529 (Political Contributions, 2015). It is also non-deductible for any of the portions of dues to lobbying or political activities. Public funding of Presidential elections means that qualified Presidential candidates receive federal government funds to pay for the valid expenses of their political campa igns in both the primary and general elections. Most political contributions, for the obvious reason of creating a more politically disinterested tax system, are not tax deductible. Political contributions and its limit have a long history and evolution process. In 1896, an Industrialist named Mark Hanna made excessive amount of contributions to candidate William McKinley. It was controversial of the growing influence of big business in American politics. 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